长篇阅读之科技篇：科技与自然1

Technology that imitates nature
Biomimetics: Engineers are increasingly taking a leaf out of nature's book when looking for solutions to design problems
AFTER taking his dog for a walk one day in the early 1940s, George de Mestral, a Swiss inventor, became curious about the seeds of the burdock plant that had attached themselves to his clothes and to the dog's fur. Under a microscope, he looked closely at the hook-and-loop system that the seeds have evolved to hitchhike on passing animals and aid pollination¹, and he realised that the same approach could be used to join other things together. The result was Velcr a product that was arguably more than three billion years in the making, since that is how long the natural mechanism² that inspired it took to evolve.
Velcro is probably the most famous and certainly the most successful example of biological mimicry³, or “biomimetics”. In fields from robotics to materials science, technologists are increasingly borrowing ideas from nature, and with good reason: nature's designs have, by definition, stood the test of time, so it would be foolish to ignore them. Yet transplanting natural designs into man-made technologies is still a hit-or-miss affair.

Engineers depend on biologists to discover interesting mechanisms⁴ for them to exploit, says Julian Vincent, the director of the Centre for Biomimetic and Natural Technologies at the University of Bath in England. So he and his colleagues have been working on a scheme to enable engineers to bypass the biologists and tap into nature's ingenuity⁵ directly, via a database of “biological patents”. The idea is that this database will let anyone search through a wide range of biological mechanisms and properties to find natural solutions to technological⁶ problems.
 
How not to reinvent the wheel
Surely human intellect, and the deliberate application of design knowledge, can devise better mechanisms than the mindless, random⁷ process of evolution? Far from it. Over billions of years of trial and error, nature has devised effective solutions to all sorts of complicated real-world problems. Take the slippery task of controlling a submersible vehicle, for example. Using propellers⁸, it is incredibly difficult to make refined movements. But Nekton Research, a company based in Durham, North Carolina, has developed a robot fish called Madeleine that manoeuvres using fins⁹ instead.
In some cases, engineers can spend decades inventing and perfecting a new technology, only to discover that nature beat them to it. The Venus flower basket, for example, a kind of deep-sea sponge, has spiny¹⁰ skeletal outgrowths that are remarkably¹¹ similar, both in appearance and optical properties, to commercial optical fibres, notes Joanna Aizenberg, a researcher at Lucent Technology's Bell Laboratories in New Jersey¹². And sometimes the systems found in nature can make even the most advanced technologies look primitive¹³ by comparison, she says.
The skeletons of brittlestars, which are sea creatures related to starfish and sea urchins¹⁴, contain thousands of tiny lenses that collectively form a single, distributed eye. This enables brittlestars to escape predators¹⁵ and distinguish between night and day. Besides having unusual optical properties and being very small—each is just one-twentieth of a millimetre in diameter—the lenses have another trick of particular relevance¹⁶ to micro-optical systems. Although the lenses are fixed¹⁷ in shape, they are connected via a network of fluid-filled channels, containing a light-absorbing pigment¹⁸. The creature can vary the contrast of the lenses by controlling this fluid. The same idea can be applied¹⁹ in man-made lenses, says Dr Aizenberg. “These are made from silicon²⁰ and so cannot change their properties,” she says. But by copying the brittlestar's fluidic system, she has been able to make biomimetic lens arrays with the same flexibility²¹.
Another demonstration²² of the power of biomimetics comes from the gecko. This lizard's ability to walk up walls and along ceilings is of much interest, and not only to fans of Spider-Man. Two groups of researchers, one led by Andre Geim at Manchester University and the other by Ron Fearing at the University of California, Berkeley, have independently developed ways to copy the gecko's ability to cling to walls. The secret of the gecko's success lies in the tiny hair-like structures, called setae, that cover its feet. Instead of secreting²³ a sticky substance, as you might expect, they owe their adhesive²⁴ properties to incredibly weak intermolecular attractive forces. These van der Waals forces, as they are known, which exist between any two adjacent objects, arise between the setae and the wall to which the gecko is clinging. Normally such forces are negligible, but the setae, with their spatula-like tips, maximise the surface area in contact with the wall. The weak forces, multiplied across thousands of setae, are then sufficient to hold the lizard's weight.